Re: 2023-24 Study : Electric Vehicle Benefits are Limited in India Due to Energy Mix
Chapter 1: Environment Sustainability
Cars with an internal combustion engine (ICE) burn carbon-based liquid or gaseous fuels like petrol, diesel or CNG. Burning these fuels emits gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen-based oxide (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). Different gases have different kinds of effects on human life and the environment.
Some of those harmful emissions like CO, HC, NOx, and PM are limited by government regulation in India under Bharat Stage Emission Compliance Standards.
The latest one is called BS6, that came into effect on 1st of April 2020, and limits imposed on gases are summarized above.
CAFE is yet another tool deployed by the government to control CO₂ emissions of ICE vehicles.
Electric cars don’t emit gases, so the public in general perceives that they don’t pollute the environment. But then, in India, electric cars get their energy drawn from grid electricity and on-board batteries store it in chemical form. Indian grid electricity is generated from several sources, and the largest among them is a coal-fired thermal power plant (51%). And therefore, grid electricity has emissions. Because coal-based thermal power plants also emit similar kinds of gases into the atmosphere by burning solid fuel and emitting pollutants above the Indian subcontinent in bulk, similar to what an internal combustion engine (ICE) does on a discrete scale, wherever used across the Indian subcontinent.
So anything that draws electricity from the grid will have an emission footprint over the Indian Subcontinent, whether it’s an electric car or any household appliance. That’s why several appliances do come with energy efficiency ratings in India.
CO₂ emission
First, we will consider CO₂ in this study. Now, CO₂, from gas per se, is not harmful because what we exhale, as humans, is also CO2. That CO₂ is used by vegetation on planet to convert it back into oxygen by process of photosynthesis, and the cycle continues.
But then CO₂ is a greenhouse gas. What it means is that it has the ability to trap heat. And if we emit more CO₂ in the environment than what can be converted back into O₂, it will make the earth’s atmosphere trap more heat from the sun and make the earth’s atmosphere warm.
This leads to an increase in broad-based atmospheric temperature that has multiple consequences. Such as melting of the polar ice cap, change in sea level, submergence of coastal land, erratic change in climate, uncertain rainfall, floods, etc. And all this is mostly termed climate change, a threat to the life of entire mankind on earth. Thus, governments all over the world and people have collective responsibility to reduce CO₂ emissions as far as possible.
Indian power grid CO₂ emission
Indian grid electricity has massive CO₂ footprint. This is quantified by the Central Electricity Authority in every financial year (FY) and can be found in this interesting report. As per the report, 51% of electricity is generated from coal-fired thermal power plants based on installed capacity, in addition to several other sources, including renewable energy.
Average CO₂ emission for 2023–24 can be considered as 0.716 t CO₂ per MWh. However, at nigh time there won’t be any solar power contribution to grid electricity; overall CO₂ output will be much higher—up to 0.970 t/MWh. This is crucial because several EV users charge their cars at night.
This data can be effectively used to deduce the CO₂ emission footprint for BEVs in India. Crux is what is emitted over the Indian subcontinent will collectively impact climate change.
Indian BEV CO₂ emission calculation methodology
The first step is to convert higher (t/MWh) units to lower units (g/kWh) for practical usage, as electric car batteries have a kWh rating and CO₂ for ICE cars is expressed as g/Km, and hence an apples-to-apples comparison can be quickly drawn.
The next step is to calculate the CO₂ emission figure for an electric car. Here for illustration, the Tata Nexon EV facelift Long Range version is considered.
MIDC Part I (Modified Indian Driving Cycle) claimed range for Nexon is 465 km, and it has a 40.5 kWh capacity battery pack. Based on calculation, CO₂ output over the Indian subcontinent when charged from grid electricity would be 62 g/km, provided Nexon delivers 465 km of claimed range in full charge. If range drops in real-world conditions, actual CO₂ emissions will also go up.
Published EV range : Understanding MIDC vs. WLTC difference
Before we move to CO2 figures of all products sold in 2023–24, it is important to understand the different EV ranges published by respective brands. Here WLTC stands for Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Cycle.
Cars with an internal combustion engine (ICE) have to undergo emission testing for roadworthiness certification. These tests are carried out in the laboratory (ARAI or ICAT) on dynamometers, where the vehicle’s body remains in stationary condition. Vehicles have to cover the modified Indian driving cycle, and equipment measures the tailpipe emissions.
The fuel consumption values are calculated from the hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide emission measurements taken in accordance with the provisions of AIS 137 Part-2, clause 6 of Chapter 2, in force at the time of the approval of the vehicle.
Fuel consumption figures derived based on standard formulas during this cycle are reported as fuel efficiency by manufacturers; these figures are byproducts of emission testing procedures.
It is important to note that during MIDC drive, all auxiliary power systems are switched off, i.e., no AC, no headlamp that consumes additional energy. And the average speed is limited to 32.9 kmph. These conditions are now part of standard testing; however, they vary drastically from real-world operating conditions. Which is why, in real-world conditions, vehicles either don’t meet these figures or sometimes exceed them too.
When it comes to BEVs, as they don’t have a tailpipe, they don’t have to undergo emission testing. However, they are also subjected to MIDC drive, and the driving range obtained during the test is reported by manufacturers.
In India, for some EVs, there are two different types of drive range published by brands. The cars that are homologated locally bear MIDC range. Cars that are either imported as CBU or CKD assembled locally under GSR 870 having European compliance bear the WLTC range, that doesn’t need homologation in India if it carries a certificate from Europe, and annual units are limited to 2,500 units per financial year for a legal entity.
For illustration : Tata Nexon EV on left has MIDC Part I range published in its brochure. On the right, Mercedes EQS has both WLTC and MIDC data, as Mercedes chose to get the EQS 580 4MATIC homologated in India at the ARAI test center. The gap between MIDC and WLTC figures in the case of EQS is as high as 46%. Below is an explanation of such a high gap.
Indian emission standards are purely based on European standards, with a latency in implementation date. That also shows India lacks R&D culture and simply copies European standards without much investment.
But a major difference is in the testing cycle. WLTC became mandatory from 1 September 2018 for measuring CO2 emissions and fuel economy on all new cars in the EU region. India, despite adopting Euro 6 emission standards, is still following the old Modified EUDC testing cycle and only has plans to switch to WLTC by 2027.
Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure
The New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) has certain limitations as the driving pattern has evolved in several regions. So a new procedure, Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedures (WLTP), has been formalized by UNECE. The WLTP is a global harmonized standard for determining the levels of pollutants, CO2 emissions, and fuel consumption of traditional and hybrid cars and the range of fully electric vehicles.
Major differences in the cycles are demonstrated in the above graph.
This is why a gap exists for products tested on the European WLTP cycle and simultaneously tested in India under MIDC. Here, WLTP is more realistic and close to real-world driving conditions as compared to MIDC.
Since MIDC is not close to realistic real-world driving conditions, the real range of current BEV products is even lower than manufacturers’ reported data by 20% to 40% in real-world conditions.
Gap due to testing procedure is summarized above in terms of grid CO₂.
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2023-24 Product-wise grid-based CO₂ emission over the Indian Subcontinent
The below table summarizes the weighted grid-level CO₂ emission of each carline factoring in a mix of different variants sold in FY 2023-24. Also included are estimated GST forgone by the government to incentivize sales of these EVs in India.
- Luxury BEVs with bigger battery packs and performance-oriented motors have a higher CO2 footprint
- Slippery Mercedes EQE SUV & EQS have relatively lower CO₂ footprints compared to BMW, Audi & Porsche
- SUV-styled crossovers have a higher CO₂ footprint as they have higher coefficient of drag (Cd) values due to their upright stance
- At ₹ 74 lakhs, the BMW i7 consumed the highest GST incentive per car sales
- Tata Nexon EV consumed the highest estimated GST incentive of ₹ 760 crore in 2023-24
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2023-24 Brand-wise grid-based CO2 emission over the Indian Subcontinent
The below table summarizes the weighted grid-level CO₂ emission of each brand, factoring in the mix of different product lines sold in FY 2023-24. Also included are estimated GST forgone by the government to incentivize sales of these EVs in India.
- CO₂ emissions of all EVs put together were 65 g/km, which is significantly lower than CAF II reference of 113 g/km
- Luxury brands in India have a higher CO₂ footprint due to the WLTC test cycle and performance oriented motor
- Sales of luxury cars are mere 3%; however, they consume the bulk of the GST concession benefit (23%) as there is no cap on value
- The CO₂ footprint of luxury cars is twice that of mass market products
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Real-world range of EVs and CO₂
Still, we are halfway through the CO₂ study. Values calculated above are based on claimed ranges by respective manufacturers based on MIDC or WLTC cycle runs.
In real-world conditions, the actual range of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) often shows significant reductions compared to the claimed figures. For instance, data published by Autocar India from real-world tests indicated that the Nexon EV’s range was 41% lower than the claimed figure in the spring season, while the MG ZS EV’s range was 26% lower than the claimed figure in the summer.
The graph above is based on extrapolated data that shows how a decrease in range leads to a larger grid CO₂ emission. Nexon EV’s operational range increases to 100-125 g/km, greatly above the theoretical value of 62 g/km. During the peak summer season, it may worsen more.
Despite having a more powerful motor and a larger size, the MG appears to be more efficient and has a similar CO₂ operating range. The point is that MIDC test cycle statistics may look excellent on paper, but not in practice.
What about hybrid electric vehicles or strong hybrids?
Tata has long been opposing any sort of concession on hybrid cars as they have invested in EV technology and don’t have any competence in hybrid drivetrain as of now in India, though their subsidiary JLR has been selling PHEV across the globe.
Now at this stage a comparison can be drawn on emissions, as both technologies have direct or indirect CO₂ emissions over the Indian subcontinent.
At 27.97 km/l claimed fuel efficiency, Toyota Hyryder’s HEV CO₂ output would be 84.8 g/km. Hyryder is a bigger car here, but the CO₂ operating range of the Nexon EV and Hyryder HEV in real-world conditions remains largely in the same ballpark of 100-125 g/km, even if Hyryder’s real-world efficiency drops to 20 kmpl.
In terms of grid-based CO₂ output, the Tata Nexon EV is equally bad as Toyota’s strong hybrid. Data here is quite an eye opener, as neither Tata nor Toyota have ever substantiated their claim of protecting the environment in terms of CO₂ in the Indian public domain.
The Role of 12V and 48V Mild-Hybrids: Are they really worth it?
Mild hybrid technology is often seen as less impactful than full hybrids or plug-in hybrids. Which is true. However, their measurable contributions to lowering emissions, particularly when compared to earlier, non-hybridized versions of the same models, are significant. The Mercedes-Benz GLC’s and Maruti Brezza’s evolution in emissions data is an interesting case study in how each regulatory and technology shift (from BS4 to BS6 to BS6 RDE) influences CO₂ output.
BS4 emission phase:
The GLC’s original 2.1L diesel and 2.0L petrol engines had among the highest CO₂ emissions in the BS4 emission compliance phase. As norms were less stringent and engines were prioritized for power and performance without substantial emissions-focused technology, leading to a larger CO₂ footprint.
BS6 emission phase:
For BS6 compliance, Mercedes introduced Euro 6d compliant engines in India with improved combustion efficiency and several exhaust gas after treatment technology in late 2019. Mercedes in fact replaced the old 2.1L diesel with a new and more powerful 2.0L diesel engine. Detuned 2.0L petrol engine was brought to India with lower power and was devoid of an AWD system. These modifications resulted in significant emissions reductions, with the diesel engine alone cutting CO₂ emissions by 29%.
BS6 RDE emission phase:
The 2nd generation of GLC was launched with the same engine block, but this time they had electric assist, and the petrol engine was available in a higher state of power tune. GLC’s both engine options got 900 Wh Li-ion battery based on 48V architecture, which provides additional power assist through the ISG (integrated-starter-generator) system. The CO₂ level now came down by 9% for diesel because of the 48V hybrid system. And for petrol, CO₂ reduction is 30% from BS4 level, despite the engine being more powerful than what was offered during the BS4 phase.
Maruti Brezza : Mild hybrids based on 12V electric architecture case study
BS4 emission phase:
During the BS4 emission compliance phase, Brezza used to come with a Fiat-sourced 1.25L diesel engine with a CO₂ emission level of 109 g/km. Diesel engines are inherently low on CO₂ emissions due to the lean burning of fuel under high pressure.
BS6 emission phase:
Maruti replaced the diesel with a 1.5L naturally aspirated petrol engine and introduced a 12V ISG-based mild-hybrid system on the 4AT variants, featuring a 12V-36Wh Li-ion battery from Denso, Japan. CO₂ emission difference between 5MT and 4AT was 13 g/Km, or 9% due to Maruti’s mild hybrid system.
BS6 2nd generation Brezza:
With the new generation Brezza, Maruti has doubled battery capacity to 72Wh and was assembled in Gujarat at Toshiba-Denso-Suzuki’s JV unit. The CO2 gap between variants equipped with mild-hybrid technology is as high as 14%. Further, Maruti introduced the CNG version without mild hybrid, and the CO2 level is 107 g/km, slightly lower than the BS4 diesel version.
Conclusion
The 48V and 12V-based mild hybrid systems definitely play an effective role in improving efficiency and reducing CO₂ emissions in real-world conditions. Though reduction percentages remain modest compared to more aggressive cuts seen in plug-in or full hybrids. Still, mild hybrid technology is practical and cost effective in reducing emissions by harnessing energy from regenerative braking and electric boost, particularly when the reference point is conventional ICE engines.
In fact, diesel emissions have come down drastically in the BS6 emission compliance phase, and data shows it is not as bad as it is portrayed, especially for climate change targets, as it has lower CO₂ emissions compared to other fuels.
Does the Indian tax system effectively address environmental concerns?
This graphical analysis highlights the fallacy in the current GST vehicle tax structure, where tax slabs are based on engine capacity rather than actual emissions. The comparison between Tata and Maruti shows that Maruti Brezza’s 1.5L naturally aspirated petrol engine with 72Wh-12V Li-ion battery-based mild-hybrid technology has lower CO₂ emissions than Tata Nexon’s smaller 1.2L turbocharged petrol engine. Yet, due to its larger engine size, Maruti’s engine is significantly penalized with a higher GST rate (45%) compared to Tata’s (29%).
In fact, CNG Maruti Brezza is low on CO₂, without even mild hybrid technology, and is still penalized with a higher GST rate.
The point is that engine size criteria is an absurd parameter to check a polluting vehicle. If pollution control is a major objective, then the parameter has to be the emission figure and not engine size. Emission figures based taxation system will push manufacturers to adopt cleaner technology to achieve meaningful emission reduction, regardless of engine size.
Is CNG a better option for environmental causes?
Maruti’s CNG portfolio has substantially lower CO₂ emissions compared to conventional petrol engines. Thus serving an effective alternative environment-friendly option. Strong-hybrid technology based Grand Vitara and large MPVs like Invicto have even lower CO₂ impacts.
Moreover, when it comes to CNG as a fuel, Maruti leads in achieving lower CO₂ emissions than Tata and Hyundai. Better efficiency is a technological competence, where Tata’s offerings even fall short in the EV world.
NOx & SOx
NOx emission data is published by every manufacturer in Form 22; however, that data set is not publicly available for every car for this research purpose. Also, the government does not publish NOx and SOx reports for the power grid, though the Pollution Control Board in every state in India regularly monitors such data.
However, the satellite pictures above clearly show how coal-fired thermal power plants in India have a grave impact on the environment with NOx and SOx emissions. And BEVs charged with grid electricity simply exacerbate that effect.
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Chapter 1: Primary Objective: Environment Sustainability i.e., reduction in air pollution and lowering greenhouse gas emissions
Chapter 1: Key Findings
BEV emissions due to grid electricity :
BEVs in India currently rely heavily on coal-powered grid electricity. Resulting in a mere shift of emissions to the power generation stations, thus still having significant environmental impact.
Global Warming Impact:
Since Indian power grids are coal-dependent, BEVs indirectly contribute to global warming, undercutting their potential environmental benefits.
Real-World Efficiency Matters:
While theoretical emission figures are relatively lower than ICEs, this, however, depends on achieving promised driving ranges. BEVs with lower real-world range, such as those by Tata, have a disproportionately higher environmental impact compared to more efficient models like MG’s. ‘Kitna deti hai’ needs to be taken more seriously in the EV era by carmakers, especially for Tata Motors.
NOx and SOx Emissions:
Coal-fired power plants have a high level of NOx and SOx content due to solid fuel burning and have a grave impact on air quality.
Charging timing matters:
BEVs charged at night from grid electricity, when solar power is unavailable, result in about 35% higher emissions due to the increased reliance on coal power during these hours.
Hybrid and Alternative ICEs:
Mild, strong hybrids, as well as CNG and diesel engines, under new BS6 emission standards and with advancements in emission control technology, produce lower CO₂ emissions than before. Thus, they cannot be undermined in India’s transition phase. After all, end customers need affordable vehicles that are financially viable and self-sustainable without GST support, unlike current EVs.
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Chapter 1: Recommendations
Government should prioritize renewable energy:
India should first focus on expanding wind and solar energy generation further to make BEVs genuinely cleaner by reducing the grid’s reliance on coal.
BEV Efficiency Standards & Certification:
The government should introduce efficiency standards and certification for BEVs, similar to household appliances, to ensure carmakers improve range efficiency—especially relevant for manufacturers like Tata Motors.
Adopt Realistic Testing Standards:
Replace the MIDC-RDE testing cycle with a new WLTC standard that reflects typical real-world driving conditions, providing a more accurate measure of BEV efficiency. Moreover, focus should be more on R&D activities and initiatives similar to EU, rather than copying their standards.
Differential Taxation for Luxury EVs:
Luxury EVs should be taxed at a higher rate (28%) due to their higher energy demand and emissions impact on the grid, as their technology is unlikely to cascade effectively to mass-market models. Moreover, battery chemistry used is totally different in mass market (LFP) and luxury products (NMC), and electric motor technology is very generic now.
Emission-Based Tax System:
Shift the tax system to focus on emissions output (CO₂, NOx, CO) rather than engine size, making it technology-agnostic and directly linked to environmental impact.
Long-Term Transition Plan for ICEs:
A gradual and realistic transition plan is the need of the hour that supports cleaner fuel use and improved efficiency, rather than an abrupt push towards BEVs.
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“Due to India’s current energy mix, the benefits of EVs are limited, unlike countries that have lower grid emissions like France.”
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